JAMES II

James was the second surviving son of Charles I and Henrietta Maria of France. Created Duke of York in January 1643, he escaped to the Continent in April 1648 during the Civil Wars. He served in the French and Spanish armies and was made Lord High Admiral upon the restoration of Stuarts (1660). James' conversion to the Roman Catholic faith forced him to resign all offices under the Test Acts in 1673. On 21 Nov 1673 he married Mary Beatrice of Modena, a Roman Catholic. Although the House of Commons attempted to prevent James' accession, he acceded to the throne of England (as James II) and Scotland (as James VII) after the death of his brother Charles II in 1685.

Shortly after his coronation, James faced a revolt led by his nephew, Charles' illegitimate son, the Duke of Monmouth, easily crushed after the battle of Sedgemoor (6 Jul 1685). However, a series of repressive trials, the Bloody Assizes, and savage punishments imposed by the Lord Chief Justice, Judge Jeffrey, alienated many supporters. The Declaration of Indulgence (1687) aimed at winning the support of the Dissenters and the Roman Catholics increased the religious tensions. When James' wife gave birth (10 Jun 1688) to a son, James Francis Edward, it paved way to a Roman Catholic succession. The Protestant opposition asked James' son-in-law, the Prince of Orange (later William III), to invade England. William landed at Torbay in Devon in November 1688 and marched on London marking the beginning of the "Glorious Revolution". On 11 Dec 1688 James attempted to flee to France but was intercepted in Kent; twelve days later, on 23 Dec 1688, he was allowed to leave the English soil. On 12 Feb 1689 the Convention Parliament, assembled at Westminster, adopted the Declaration of Rights, which proclaimed that James II "abdicated the Government" and therefore the throne became vacant. The Estates of Scotland approved the "Claim of Right" and declared that James had "forfeited" the throne (11 Apr 1689). William III and Mary II were declared joint sovereigns in England and Scotland.

On 12 Mar 1690, aided by King Louis XIV, James landed in the harbor of Kinsale in Ireland in an attempt to regain his throne. He presided at the opening of Parliament in Dublin on 7 May 1690, which was summoned under his authority. However, the army of James was defeated in the Battle of the Boyne (1 Jul 1690) and he returned to France, where he remained in St. Germain-en-Laye until his death. [1; 2; 3]